Secretoglobins are a family of structurally related proteins comprised of four helical bundle monomers that form disulfide dimers, tetramers and higher multimers. There are 8 known human secretoglobins (FIG. 1) and the Clara Cell 10 kDa protein (CC10), also known as uteroglobin, Clara Cell 16 kDa protein (CC16), Clara Cell secretory protein (CCSP), blastokinin, urine protein-1, and secretoglobin 1A1 (SCGB1A1), is the most abundant and well-known member of the family. Secretoglobins and CC10 are believed to exist in all vertebrate animals. Based on what is known of CC10, secretoglobins are thought to play a role in regulating immune responses, although the physiologic roles and specific mechanisms of these proteins, including CC10 remain unknown.
The primary source of CC10 in mammals is the pulmonary and tracheal epithelia, especially the non-ciliated bronchiolar airway epithelial cells (primarily Clara cells), and it is the most abundant locally-produced protein in the extracellular fluids of the adult lung. It is also secreted in the nasal epithelia. CC10 is also present in serum and urine, which is largely derived from pulmonary sources. CC10 is also produced by reproductive tissues (uterus, seminal vesicles), exocrine glands (prostate, mammary gland, pancreas), endocrine glands (thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and ovary) and by the thymus and spleen (Mukherjee, 1999; Mukherjee, 2007). The major recoverable form of human CC10 in vivo is a homodimer, comprised of two identical 70 amino acid monomers, with an isoelectric point of 4.7-4.8. Its molecular weight is 15.8 kDa, although it migrates on SDS-PAGE at an apparent molecular weight of 10-12 kDa. In the native homodimer, the monomers are arranged in an antiparallel configuration, with the N-terminus of one adjacent to the C-terminus of the other and are connected by two disulfide bonds between Cys3 of one monomer and Cys69 of the other monomer (Mukherjee, 1999).
There are many chemical and enzymatic processes that modify amino acid residues on proteins. The secretoglobins undergo cleavage of N-terminal signal peptides, which is an integral part of the secretion process in mammalian cells. But they are not known to be glycosylated or lipidated. However, secretoglobins are subjected to the same processes that affect all other proteins in the extracellular milieu during an inflammatory response. Native CC10 is chemically modified in vivo and new forms of native CC10 have been identified in patient samples that are not present in samples from normal humans (Lindhal, 1999; Ramsay, 2001; Ariaz-Martinez, 2012). The modifications are presumed to be caused by inflammatory processes, since the new forms have only been identified in airway lining fluid (ALF) samples from patients with respiratory conditions characterized by ongoing or acute inflammation. Although some have speculated that the modifications to CC10 are the result of reactions with reactive oxygen species generated by the inflammatory response, the nature of the modifications is presently unknown. Furthermore, oxidative modification to native CC10 is thought to represent damage to the protein that impairs its anti-inflammatory activity and immunomodulatory function, thereby contributing to the development of chronic lung disease in premature infants who experience respiratory distress (Ramsay, 2001).
Synthetic CC10 protein may be made by recombinant or chemical synthetic methods (Barnes, 1996; Mantile, 1993; Nicolas, 2005). CC10 is the most well-known member of a family of structurally related proteins collectively called secretoglobins (Klug, 2000). The amino acid sequences for the mature secreted sequences of eight human secretoglobins are shown in FIG. 1. The N-termini are predictions based on consensus signal peptide cleavage sites and have not been confirmed by N-terminal sequencing of the native proteins. All secretoglobins share a conserved four helical bundle secondary structure and, therefore, generally believed to mediate similar physiological functions.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are generated as a part of chronic inflammatory processes associated with aging and disease, or as a result of severe inflammatory responses to combat infections and other acute insults, such as smoke inhalation. Common ROS and RNS chemical reagents that mediate protein oxidation in vivo include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Fe2+, Cu1+, glutathione, HOCl, HOBr, 1O2, and ONOO−. ROS and RNS may be synthesized or released in vivo as a result of enzyme activity, such as myeloperoxidase, xanthine oxidase, and P-450 enzymes, and oxidative burst activity of activated phagocytic cells. Lipid peroxides such as 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal (HNE), (MDA), and acrolein are the products of reactions of ROS and RNS with lipids that are, in turn, highly reactive and can form adducts with proteins. Ozone and UV light, as well as gamma irradiation in the presence of O2 and mitochondrial electron transport chain leakage, also cause protein oxidation.
ROS and RNS are indiscriminate chemically reactive agents that destroy essential biological components including nucleic acids, lipids (including membrane and surfactant phospholipids), and proteins, in both the pathogen and host, often causing significant tissue damage that may be more life-threatening than the original infection or other cause of the inflammatory response. For example, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is often triggered by an acute lung infection (pneumonia) that results in the release of ROS and RNS, and typically has a 40-60% mortality rate due to pulmonary tissue damage that compromises lung function, even after the pathogen causing the infection is brought under control using anti-microbial agents.
There are several types of oxidative protein modifications, the most common of which is sulfur oxidation in which disulfide bonds between cysteines (Cys), S-thiolation, and methionine (Met) sulfoxide are formed. Protein carbonyl groups are also common oxidative modifications in which amino acid side chains are converted to aldehydes and ketones, especially lysine (Lys) arginine (Arg), and proline (Pro). Aliphatic amino acids may be converted to their hydro(pero)xy derivatives. Chloramines and deaminations may occur. Certain amino acids may be converted into other amino acids, such as histidine (His) to asparagine (Asn), while others may form lipid peroxidation adducts, amino acid oxidation adducts (eg. p-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde), and glycoxidation adducts (eg. carboxymethyllysine). At a macroscopic protein level, cross-links, aggregation, and peptide bond cleavage may occur as a result of exposure to ROS and RNS.
There 12 amino acids that are modified in vivo by ROS and RNS into several physiologic oxidation products, as shown in Table 1. In general, amino acids cysteine (Cys) and methionine (Met) are the most susceptible to oxidation and, unlike oxidation of other amino acids, the oxidation of Met and Cys are reversible (methionine sulfoxide reductase and glutathione and thioredoxin redox systems) (Stadtman, 2002).
TABLE 1Amino acid modifications caused by ROS and RNSNumberper CC10Amino AcidPhysiological oxidation productsmonomerCysteine (Cys)Disulfides, glutathiolation, HNE-Cys2Methionine (Met)Methionine sulfoxide4Tyrosine (Tyr)Dityrosine, nitrotyrosine,1chlorotyrosines, dopaPhenylalanineTyrosine (hydroxyphenylalanine)2(Phe)Valine (Val) &Peroxides (hydroxides)9Leucine (Leu)Glutamate (Glu)Oxalic acid, pyruvic acid6Proline (Pro)Hydroxyproline, pyrrolidone,4glutamic semialdehydeThreonine (Thr)2-amino-3-ketobutyric acid3Arginine (Arg)Glutamic semialdehyde, chloramines3Lysine (Lys)a-aminoadipic semialdehyde,5chloramines, MDA-Lys, HNE-Lys,acrolein-Lys, carboxymethyllysine,pHA-LysTryptophan (Trp)Hydroxytryptophan, Nitro-tryptophan,0kynureninesHistidine (His)2-oxohistidine, asparagine, aspartate,0HNE-His
Modification of secretoglobins may also be mediated enzymatically, not just by the downstream effects of ROS and RNS generated by enzymes such as MPO, but also by transglutaminase enzymes (TGs). TGs are ubiquitous in nature, found in all forms of life from microbes to mammals. TGs are essential to several inter- and intracellular processes in mammals, including extracellular matrix synthesis, neutrophil and monocyte adhesion and motility, receptor endocytosis, pinocytosis, antigen uptake and processing, blood clotting, G-protein signaling, and apoptosis (reviewed in Lorand, 2003). TGs are multi-functional enzymes that mediate at least one main enzymatic activity; the classical transglutaminase activity in which a glutamine residue in one protein serves as an acyl donor and a lysine residue in a second protein serves as the acyl acceptor. TGs also mediate deamidation and esterification of proteins, as well as the creation and rearrangement of disulfide bonds between cysteine residues. None of these activities has an energy requirement and the only cofactor necessary is calcium.
Transglutaminases play a significant role in inflammation and immunity, particularly TG2 or tissue transglutaminase. It is present mostly in the cytoplasm but a portion of the enzyme is associated with the membrane on the cell surface and is known to be a coreceptor for fibronectin. TGs have also been shown to cross-link proteins to specific lipid moieties in membranes, allowing a lipid barrier to be created on a structural protein scaffold in skin (Lesort, 2000; Nemes, 1999). More recently, the emerging role of TGs in viral infection has been recognized (reviewed in Jeon, 2006). Intracellular TG2 is normally present in an inactive state and is activated by oxidative stress and calcium mobilization resulting from viral infection. Activated intracellular TG2 mediates its anti-viral activities via direct modification/inactivation of viral proteins, as well as modification of cellular proteins required for viral entry, replication, assembly, or transport. CC10 has been previously shown to be a substrate for TG2 (Mukherjee, 1988). CC10 is cross-linked to other CC10 molecules by TG2, to form covalently attached multimers and aggregates observed on SDS-PAGE gels and Western blots. However, no other TG-mediated reaction products of CC10 or other secretoglobin have been characterized.